Article Type : Review Article
Authors : Parente A, Gatta NG, Battipaglia M, Giuliano A, Capolongo F and Gentile V
Keywords : Transglutaminases; Post-translational modifications of proteins; Neurodegeneration; NF-kB; Neuroinflammation; Transglutaminase inhibitors
Transglutaminases are a family of Ca2+-dependent enzymes
which catalyze post-translational modifications of proteins. The main activity
of these enzymes is the cross-linking of glutaminyl residues of a
protein/peptide substrate to lysyl residues of a protein/peptide co-substrate.
In addition to lysyl residues, other second nucleophilic co-substrates may
include monoamines or polyamines (to form mono- or bi-substituted/crosslinked
adducts) or -OH groups (to form ester linkages). In absence of co-substrates, the
nucleophile may be water, resulting in the net deamidation of the glutaminyl
residue. Transglutaminase activity has been suggested to be involved in
molecular mechanisms responsible for both physiological and pathological
processes. In particular, transglutaminase activity has been shown to be
responsible for human autoimmune diseases, and Celiac Disease is just one of
them. Interestingly, neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease, supranuclear palsy, Huntington’s disease and other
polyglutamine diseases, are characterized in part by aberrant cerebral
transglutaminase activity and by increased cross-linked proteins in affected
brains. Here we describe the possible molecular be responsible for such
diseases and the possible use of transglutaminase inhibitors for patients with
diseases mechanisms by which these enzymes could characterized by aberrant
transglutaminase activity.
Transglutaminases (TGs, E.C. 2.3.2.13) are Ca2+-dependent enzymes which catalyze post-translational modifications of proteins. Examples of TG-catalyzed reactions include: (I) acyl transfer between the g-carboxamide group of a protein/polypeptide glutaminyl residue and the e-amino group of a protein/polypeptide lysyl residue; (II) attachment of a polyamine to the g-carboxamide of a glutaminyl residue; (III) deamidation of the g-carboxamide group of a protein/polypeptide glutaminyl residue (Figure 1) [1,2]. The reactions catalyzed by TGs occur by a two-step mechanism (ping-pong type), (Figure 2). The transamidating activity of TGs is activated by the binding of Ca2+, which exposes an active-site cysteine residue. This cysteine residue reacts with the g-carboxamide group of an incoming glutaminyl residue of a protein/peptide substrate to yield a thioacyl-enzyme intermediate and ammonia, (Figure 2, Step 1). The thioacylenzyme intermediate then reacts with a nucleophilic primary amine substrate, resulting in the covalent attachment of the amine-containing donor to the substrate glutaminyl acceptor and regeneration of the cysteinyl residue at the active site, (Figure 2, Step 2). If the primary amine is donated by the e-amino group of a lysyl residue in a protein/polypeptide, a Ne- (g-L-glutamyl)-L-lysine (GGEL) isopeptide bond is formed, (Figure 1, example I). On the other hand, if a polyamine or another primary amine (e.g. histamine, serotonin and others) acts as the amine donor, a g-glutamylpolyamine (or g- glutamylamine) residue is formed, (Figure 1, example II). It is also possible for a polyamine to act as an N,N-bis-(g-Lglutamyl)polyamine bridge between two glutaminyl acceptor residues either on the same protein/polypeptide or between two proteins/polypeptides [3]. If there is no primary amine present, water may act as the attacking nucleophile, resulting in the deamidation of glutaminyl residues to glutamyl residues, (Figure 1, example III).
Figure 1: Examples of reactions catalyzed by TGs: (I) acyl transfer between the ?-carboxamide group of a protein/polypeptide glutaminyl residue and the ? -amino group of a protein/polypeptide lysyl residue; (II) attachment of a polyamine to the ? -carboxamide of a glutaminyl residue; (III) deamidation of the ? -carboxamide group of a protein/polypeptide glutaminyl residue; (IV) GTPase activity; (V) protein disulfide isomerase activity; (VI) protein kinase activity.
Figure 2: Schematic representation of a two-step transglutaminase reaction. Step 1: In the presence of Ca2+, the active-site cysteine residue reacts with the g-carboxamide group of an incoming glutaminyl residue of a protein/peptide substrate to yield a thioacyl-enzyme intermediate and ammonia. Step 2: The thioacyl-enzyme intermediate reacts with a nucleophilic primary amine substrate, resulting in the covalent attachment of the amine-containing donor to the substrate glutaminyl acceptor and regeneration of the cysteinyl residue at the active site. If the primary amine is donated by the e-amino group of a lysyl residue in a protein/polypeptide, a Ne-(g-L-glutamyl)-L-lysine (GGEL) isopeptide bond is formed.
Regarding the
physiological roles played by the transglutaminase activity, recently
transglutaminase-catalyzed polyamination of tubulin has been shown to stabilize
axonal microtubules, suggesting an important role for these reactions also
during some physiological processes, such as neurite outgrowth and axon
maturation [4]. The reactions catalyzed by TGs occur with little change in free
energy and hence should theoretically be reversible. However, under
physiological conditions the cross linking reactions catalyzed by TGs are
usually irreversible. This irreversibility partly results from the metabolic
removal of ammonia from the system and from thermodynamic considerations
resulting from altered protein conformation. Some scientific reports suggest
that TGs may be able to catalyze the hydrolysis of Ne-(g-L-glutamyl)-L-lysine
cross-links (GGEL) isopeptide bonds in some soluble cross-linked proteins.
Furthermore, it is likely that TGs can catalyze the exchange of polyamines onto
proteins [2]. In TG2 other catalytic activities, such as the ability to
hydrolyze GTP (or ATP) into GDP (or ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Figure 1,
example IV), a protein disulfide isomerase activity (Figure 1, example V), and
a kinase activity which phosphorylates histones, retinoblastoma (RB) and P53
(Figure 1, example VI), are present, while only some of these activities have
been identified also in other TGs [5-8]. Numerous experimental findings
indicate that some TGs are multifunctional proteins with distinct and regulated
enzymatic activities. In fact, under physiological conditions, the
transamidation activity of TGs is latent [9,10], while other activities,
recently identified, could be present. For example, in some physiological
states, when the concentration of Ca2+ increases, the crosslinking
activity of TGs may contribute to important biological processes. As previously
described, one of the most intriguing properties of some TGs, such as TG2, is
the ability to bind and hydrolyze GTP and furthermore, to bind to GTP and Ca2+.
GTP and Ca2+ regulate its enzymatic activities, including protein
cross-linking, in a reciprocal manner: the binding of Ca2+ inhibits
GTP-binding and GTPbinding inhibits the transglutaminase cross-linking activity
of the TG2 [5]. Interestingly, TG2 shows no sequence homology with
heterotrimeric or low-molecular-weight G-proteins, but there is evidence that
TG2 (TG2/Gha) is involved in signal transduction, and, therefore,
TG2/Gha should also be classified as a large molecular weight
G-protein. Other studies, along with ours, showed that TG2/Gha can mediate the
activation of phospholipase C (PLC) by the a1b-adrenergic 3 receptor [10] and can
modulate adenylyl cyclase activity [11]. TG2/Gha can also mediate the activation of the d1 isoform of PLC
and of maxi-K channels [12]. Interestingly, the signaling function of TG2/Gha is preserved even
with the mutagenic inactivation of its crosslinking activity by the mutation of
the active site cysteine residue [13].
At least eight different
TGs, distributed in the human body, have been identified to date (Table 1) [14-19].
Table 1: TGs and their physiological
roles when known.
TG |
Physiological role |
Gene map location |
Reference |
Factor XIIIa |
Blood clotting |
6p24-25 |
[14] |
TG 1 (Keratinocyte TG, kTG) |
Skin differentiation |
14q11.2 |
[15] |
TG 2
(Tissue TG, tTG, cTG) |
Apoptosis, cell adhesion, signal transduction |
20q11-12 |
[16] |
TG 3 (Epidermal TG, eTG) |
Hair follicle differentiation |
20p11.2 |
[17] |
TG 4 (Prostate TG, pTG) |
Suppression of sperm immunogenicity |
3q21-2 |
[18] |
TG 5 (TG X) |
Epidermal differentiation |
15q15.2 |
[19] |
TG 6 (TG Y) |
Central Nervous System Development |
20p13 |
[19] |
TG 7 (TG Z) |
Unknown function |
15q15.2 |
[19] |
Complex gene expression
mechanisms regulate the physiological roles that these enzymes play in both the
intracellular and extracellular compartments. In the Nervous System, for
example, several forms of TGs are simultaneously expressed [20-22]. In these last
years, moreover, several alternative splice variants of TGs, mostly in the 3’-
end regions, have been identified [23]. Interestingly, some of them are
differently expressed in human pathologies, such as Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
[24]. In addition, several MicroRNAs regulating TG2 expression both in
inflammatory and neoplastic conditions have been recently identified [25-26].
Very recently, a long non coding RNA inside the type 2 transglutaminase gene,
which tightly correlates with the expression of its transcriptional variants,
has been reported, suggesting a new possible regulatory molecular mechanism of
the TG2 gene expression [27]. On the basis of their ubiquitous expression and
their biological roles, we may speculate that the absence of these enzymes would
be lethal. However, this does not always seem to be the case, since, for
example, null mutants of the TG2 are usually phenotypically normal at birth
[12,28,29]. This result may be explained by the expression of other TGs genes
that may substitute the TG2 missing isoform, although other TGs isoform
mutations have been associated with severe phenotypes, such as lamellar
ichthyosis for TG1 isoform mutations. Bioinformatic studies have shown that the
primary structures of human TGs share some identities in only few regions, such
as the active site and the calcium binding regions. However, high sequence
conservation and, therefore, a high degree of preservation of secondary
structure among TG2, TG3 and FXIIIa indicate that these TGs all share
four-domain tertiary structures which could be similar to those of other TGs
[30].
Role of the Transglutaminases in
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Although numerous scientific reports suggest that the transglutaminase activity is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, to date, however, still controversial experimental findings about the role of the TGs enzymes in these diseases have been obtained [31-33]. Protein aggregates in affected brain regions are histopathological hallmarks of many neurodegenerative diseases [34]. More than 30 years ago Selkoe et al. [35] suggested that TG activity might contribute to the formation of protein aggregates in AD brain. In support of this hypothesis, tau protein has been shown to be an excellent in vitro substrate of TGs [36,37] and GGEL cross-links have been found in the neurofibrillary tangles and paired helical filaments of AD brains [38]. Interestingly, a recent work showed the presence of bis g-glutamyl putrescine in human CSF, which was increased in Huntington’s Disease (HD) CSF [39]. This is an important evidence that protein/peptides crosslinking by polyamines does indeed occur in the brain, and that this is increased in HD brain. TGs activity has been shown to induce also amyloid b-protein oligomerization [40] and aggregation at physiologic levels [39]. By these molecular mechanisms, TGs could contribute to AD symptoms and progression [41]. Moreover, there is evidence that TGs also contribute to the formation of proteinaceous deposits in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) [42,43], in supranuclear palsy [44,45] and in HD, a neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG expansion in the affected gene [46]. For example, expanded polyglutamine domains have been reported to be substrates of TG2 [47-49] and therefore aberrant TGs activity could contribute to CAG-expansion diseases, including HD (Figure 3). However, although all these studies suggest the possible involvement of the TGs in the formation of deposits of protein aggregates in neurodegenerative diseases, they do not indicate whether aberrant TGs activity per se directly determines the disease progression. For example, several experimental findings reported that TG2 activity in vitro leads to the formation of soluble aggregates of a-synuclein [50] or polyQ proteins [51,52]. To date, as previously reported, at least ten human CAG-expansion diseases have been described (Table 2) [53-62] and in at least eight of them their neuropathology is caused by the expansion in the number of residues in the polyglutamine domain to a value beyond 35-40.
Figure
3: Possible physiopathological effects of the mutated
huntingtin. Some of the physiopathological roles of mutated huntingtin,
including the formation of nuclear inclusions, have been described in the
Figure. AP2 = adipocyte Protein 2; BAX = bcl-2-like protein 4; BDNF =
brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CALM = calmodulin; CASP = caspases; CASP3 =
caspase 3; CASP8 = caspase 8; CBP = CREB binding protein; CBS =
cystathionine-?-synthase; DCTN1 = dynactin subunit 1; GAPD =
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GRB2 = growth factor receptor-bound
protein 2; HAP1 = huntingtin associated protein 1; HIP1 = huntingtin
interacting protein 1; HIP2 = huntingtin interacting protein 2; Hippi =; HIP1
protein interactor; NCOR1 = nuclear receptor corepressor 1; RasGAP = p21Ras
protein and GTPase-activating protein complex; TGs = transglutaminases; TP53 =
tumor protein 53.
Table 2: List of polyglutamine
(CAG-expansion) diseases.
Disease |
Sites
of neuropathology |
CAG
triplet number |
Gene
product |
Reference |
|
Normal |
Disease |
||||
Corea Major or |
Striatum (medium spiny neurons) |
6–35 |
36–121 |
Huntingtin(n,c) |
[53] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia |
Cerebellar cortex (Purkinje
cells), dentate nucleus and brain stem |
6–39 |
40–81 |
Ataxin-1(n,c) |
[54] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2
(SCA2) |
Cerebellum, pontine nuclei,
substantia nigra |
15–29 |
35–64 |
Ataxin–2 (c) |
[55] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3
(SCA3) or Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) |
Substantia nigra, globus pallidus,
pontine nucleus, cerebellar cortex |
13–42 |
61–84 |
Ataxin –3 (c) |
[56] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 6
(SCA6) |
Cerebellar and mild brainstem
atrophy |
4–18 |
21–30 |
Calcium channel Subunit (? 1A)(m) |
[57] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7
(SCA7) |
Photoreceptor and bipolar cells,
cerebellar cortex, brainstem |
7–17 |
37–130 |
Ataxin-7 (n) |
[58] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 12
(SCA12) |
Cortical, cerebellar atrophy |
7–32 |
41–78 |
Brain specific regulatory subunit
of protein phosphatase PP2A (?) |
[59] |
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 17
(SCA17) |
Gliosis and neuronal loss in the
Purkinje cell layer |
29–42 |
46–63 |
TATA-binding protein (TBP) (n) |
[60] |
Spinobulbar Muscular Atrophy
(SBMA) or Kennedy Disease |
Motor neurons (anterior horn
cells, bulbar neurons) and dorsal root ganglia |
11–34 |
40–62 |
Androgen receptor (n, c) |
[61] |
Dentatorubralpallidoluysian
Atrophy (DRPLA) |
Globus pallidus, dentato-rubral
and subthalamic nucleus |
7–35 |
49–88 |
Atrophin (n, c) |
[62] |
Cellular localization: c, cytosol;
m, membrane; n, nucleus |
Remarkably, the mutated
proteins have no obvious similarities except for the expanded polyglutamine
domain. In fact, in all cases except SCA 12, the mutation occurs in the coding
region of the gene. However, in SCA12, the CAG triplet expansion occurs in the
untranslated region at the 5' end of the PPP2R2B gene. It has been proposed
that the toxicity results from overexpression of the brain specific regulatory
subunit of protein phosphatase PP2A [59]. Most of the mutated proteins are widely
expressed both within the brain and elsewhere in the body. A major challenge
then is to understand why the brain is primarily affected and why different
regions within the brain are affected in the different CAG-expansion diseases,
i.e., what accounts for the neurotoxic gain of function of each protein and for
a selective vulnerability of each cell type. Possibly, the selective
vulnerability [63] may be explained in part by the susceptibility of the
expanded polyglutamine domains in the various CAG-expansion diseases to act as
cosubstrates for brain TGs (Figure 4). To strengthen the possible central role
of the TGs in neurodegenerative diseases, a study by Hadjivassiliou et al. [64]
showed that anti-TG2 IgA antibodies are present in the gut and brain of patients
with gluten ataxia, a non-genetic sporadic cerebellar ataxia, but not in ataxia
control patients. Recently, anti-TG2, -TG3 and - TG6 antibodies have been found
in sera from Celiac Disease patients, suggesting a possible involvement also of
other TGs in the pathogenesis of dermatitis herpetiformis and gluten ataxia,
two frequent extra intestinal manifestations of gluten sensitivity [65,66].
These last findings could suggest also a possible role of the “gut-brain axe”
for the etiopathogenesis of human neurodegenerative diseases, in which the TGs
enzymes, in particular the TG2 enzyme, could play an important role [67-69]. In
support of the hypothesis of the toxic effect of TGs activity in other
neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s
Disease, TG activity has been shown to induce amyloid beta-protein and a-synuclein
oligomerization and aggregation at physiologic levels [70-72]. In fact, TGs
activity induces protofibril-like amyloid betaprotein assemblies that are
protease-resistant and inhibit long-term potentiation [41]. Therefore, by these
molecular mechanisms, TGs activity could also contribute to Alzheimer's disease
symptoms and progression. Recently, TG2 and its product isopeptide have been
found increased in Alzheimer’s disease and APPswe/PS1dE9 double transgenic mice
brains [73], while catalytically active TG2 colocalizes with Ab pathology in
Alzheimer’s disease mouse models [74].
Interestingly, other
works are suggesting that also other TGs could be involved in the molecular
mechanisms responsible for neurodegenerative diseases [75]. In particular, a
work by Basso et al. [76] found that in addition to TG2, TG1 gene expression
level is significantly induced following stroke in vivo or due to oxidative
stress in vitro. Moreover, structurally diverse inhibitors, used at
concentrations that inhibit TG1 and TG2 simultaneously, are neuroprotective.
Together, these last studies suggested that multiple TG isoforms, not only TG2,
participate in oxidative stress-induced cell death signalling, and that isoform
nonselective inhibitors of TGs will be most efficacious in combating oxidative
death in neurological disorders. These are interesting and worthwhile studies,
suggesting that multiple TGs isoforms can participate in neuronal death
processes. Therefore, all these studies suggest that the involvement of brain
TGs could represent a common denominator in several neurological diseases,
which can lead to the determination of pathophysiological consequences through
different molecular mechanisms.
Figure 4: Possible mechanisms responsible for protein aggregate formation catalyzed by TGs. Transglutaminase activity could produce insoluble aggregates both by the formation of Ne-(g-L-glutamyl)-L-lysine (GGEL) isopeptide bonds (left side of the figure) and by the formation of N,N-bis-(g-L-glutamyl)polyamine bridges (right side of the figure) in the mutated huntingtin.
Neuroinflammation plays
an important role in various chronic neurodegenerative diseases, characterized
also by the pathological accumulation of specific protein aggregates. In
particular, several of these proteins have been shown to be substrates of TGs.
Interestingly, it has recently been demonstrated that TG2 may also be involved
in molecular mechanisms underlying inflammation. In the central nervous system,
astrocytes and microglia are the cell types mainly involved in this
inflammatory process. The transcription factor NF-?B is considered the main
regulator of inflammation and it is activated by a variety of stimuli including
calcium influx, oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines. Recently, in
addition to these stimuli, TG2 has been shown to activate NF-kB both via a
canonical pathway [77] and via a non-canonical pathway [78]. On the other hand,
NF-kB regulatory response elements are present also in the
Transglutaminase 2 promoter [79]. Under these conditions, the over-expression
of TG2 results in the sustained activation of NF-?B. Several findings emphasize
the possible role of the TG2/NF-?B activation pathway in neurodegenerative
diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple
sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Together, these evidences suggest
that TG2 could play a role in neuroinflammation and could contribute to the
production of compounds that are potentially deleterious to neuronal cells.
In consideration to the fact that up to now there have been no long-term effective treatments for the human neurodegenerative diseases, then the possibility that selective TGs inhibitors may be of clinical benefit has been seriously considered. In this respect, some encouraging results have been obtained with TGs inhibitors in preliminary studies with different biological models of CAG-expansion diseases. For example, cystamine (Figure 5) is a potent in vitro inhibitor of enzymes which require an unmodified cysteine at the active site [80].
Figure 5: Chemical structure of
cystamine.
Inasmuch as TGs contain a
crucial active-site cysteine, cystamine has the potential to inhibit these
enzymes by a sulfide-disulfide interchange reaction. A sulfidedisulfide
interchange reaction results in the formation of cysteamine and a
cysteamine-cysteine mixed disulfide residue at the active site. Recent studies
have shown that cystamine decreases the number of protein inclusions in
transfected cells expressing the atrophin (DRPLA) protein containing a pathological-length
polyglutamine domain [81]. In other studies, cystamine administration to
HD-transgenic mice resulted in an increase in life expectancy and amelioration
of neurological symptoms [82,83]. Neuronal inclusions were decreased in one of
these studies [83]. Although all these scientific reports seem to support the
hypothesis of a direct role of transglutaminase activity in the pathogenesis of
the polyglutamine diseases, cystamine is also found to act in the HD-transgenic
mice by mechanisms other than the inhibition of TGs, such as the inhibition of
caspases [84], suggesting that this compound can have an additive effect in the
therapy of HD. Currently, cysteamine is already in phase I studies in humans
with HD [85], but several side effects, such as nausea, motor impairment and
dosing schedule have been reported as reasons for non-adherence during phase II
studies in human patients affected by cystinosis [86,87]. Another critical
problem in the use of TGs inhibitors in treating neurological diseases relates
to the fact that, as previously reported, the human brain contains at least
four TGs, including TG1, 2, 3 [22] and TG6 [88], and a strong non-selective
inhibitor of TGs might also inhibit plasma Factor XIIIa, causing a bleeding
disorder. Therefore, from a number of standpoints it would seem that a
selective inhibitor, which discriminates between TGs, would be preferable to an
indiscriminate TG inhibitor. In fact, although most of the TGs activity in
mouse brain, at least as assessed by an assay that measures the incorporation
of radioactive putrescine (amine donor) into N,N-dimethyl casein (amine
acceptor), seems to be due to TG2 [89], several conflicting data have been
obtained by TG2 gene knock-out experiments about the involvement of TG2 in the
development of the symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases in transgenic mice
models, such as HD- and a-synuclein-transgenic mice [29,90-92]. In
addition, a scientific report showed that cystamine reduces aggregate formation
in a mouse model of oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OMPD), in which also
the TG2 knockdown is capable of suppressing the aggregation and the toxicity of
the mutant protein PABPN1 [93], suggesting this compound as a possible
therapeutic for OMPD.
Numerous scientific reports
have implicated aberrant TGs activity in neurodegenerative diseases, but still
today we are looking for experimental findings which could definitely confirm
the direct involvement of TGs in the pathogenetic mechanisms responsible for
these diseases. However, as result of the putative role of specific TGs
isoforms, such as TG2, in some human diseases, there is a considerable interest
in developing inhibitors of these enzymes. Of those currently available,
cystamine is the most commonly used experimentally to inhibit TG2 activity. In
addition to cystamine, several types of TG2 inhibitors have been developed up
to now. For example, some of these inhibitors have shown promising results in
experimental diabetic models [94], while, very recently, two new small TG2
activity inhibitors, BJJF078 and ERW1041E, have been characterized as possible
therapeutic agents in a mouse model for multiple sclerosis [95]. Therefore, the
use of these inhibitors of TGs could be then useful also for other clinical
approaches. To minimize the possible side effects, however, more selective
inhibitors of the TGs should be required in the future. Progress in this area
of research could be achieved, if possible, also through pharmaco-genetic
approaches.
List of Abbreviations
AD: Alzheimer’s Disease;
GGEL: Ne-(g-L-glutamyl)-L-lysine; HD: Huntington’s
Disease; PD: Parkinson’s Disease; TGs: Transglutaminases
Conflict of Interest
Authors
do not have any conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by
the Italian Education Department and the Regione Campania, Italy (L.R. n.5 del
28.03.2002, finanziamento 2008) entitled: Identificazione e caratterizzazione
di geni della transglutaminasi nel Sistema Nervoso in relazione allo sviluppo
di malattie neurodegenerative (Identification and characterization of
transglutaminase genes in the Nervous System in relationship to the development
of neurodegenerative diseases).