Article Type : Review Article
Authors : Bereda G
Keywords : Chronic; Health problems; Khat chewing
Catha edulis plant is commonly known as khat, qat, chat or miraa belongs to the family of Celastraceae is a shrub or small to medium sized evergreen tree. Phenylalkylamine type alkaloids cathinone and cathine are mainly the chemical constituents of Khat leaves which are considered to be responsible for the pharmacological actions. Cathinone has a high abuse potential and releases endogenous catecholamines from peripheral and central neurons. Khat chewing is known to cause serious a health issue due to Khat consumption is addictive, causing some psychologic and/or biologic dependence. The World Health Organization classified khat as an illegal drug, as causing psychological but not physical dependence and indicated that its abuse may cause a range of health challenges. Long term use or abuse can cause insomnia, anorexia, gastric disorders, depression, liver damage and cardiac complications. Manic and delusional behavior violence, suicidal depression, hallucinations, paranoia and Khat induced psychosis have also been observed among chronic khat chewers.
Catha edulis plant is
commonly known as khat, qat, chat or miraa belongs to the family of
Celastraceae is a shrub or small to medium sized evergreen tree. Catha edulis
is frequently cultivated as a bush or small tree, mainly in Yemen and East
African Countries [1]. Khat chewing supporters claimed that chewing khat is
useful in individuals with diabetes mellitus because it reduces blood sugar,
acts as a remedy for bronchial asthma, and eases symptoms of intestinal tract
disorders and maintains social contact as a socializing herb. An opponent of
khat chewing claimed that khat injuries health and affects many aspects of life
with its adverse social, economic and medical consequences [2]. Predominantly
khat chewing is a male habit, although the number of women indulging in chewing
habit is on the rise. Individuals frequently practice chewing habit in special
social gatherings, known as khat session, which continues for several hrs to a
day. The habit of chewing involves inserting and chewing fresh khat leaves, forming
a bolus that is retained in the lower buccal vestibule against the check one
side, or rarely, on both sides. The juice is swallowed and partially
expectorated while the quid is ejected at the end of the session [3,4].
Phenylalkylamine type alkaloids cathinone and cathine are mainly the chemical
constituents of Khat leaves which are considered to be responsible for the
pharmacological actions. Cathinone is structurally related to amphetamine and
has same pharmacological actions [5].
There are three main
alkaloids present in khat leaves such as S-(?)-cathinone
(s--aminopropriophenone), norepseudoephedrine (cathine) and norephedrine. There
are also small amounts of ethereal oil, sterols and triterpenes, together with
5% protein which has insignificant nutritional value. Ascorbic acid is also
present in the leaves. Khat leaves also contains tannin (7–14% by weight in
dried leaves) and low amount of thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron and amino
acids [6,7]. The mechanism of action of cathinone is similar to that of
amphetamine, acting by releasing catecholamines from presynaptic storage sites.
Cathinone and amphetamine induce dopamine release from central dopaminergic
nerve terminals thus elevating the activity of dopaminergic pathways [8].
Cathinone has a high abuse potential and releases endogenous catecholamines
from peripheral and central neurons [9]. Cathinone, like 3,
4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘ecstasy’) and amphetamine, exerts pronounced
behavioural effects including euphoria, excitability, anxiety, irritability,
hyperactivity, restlessness and insomnia [10]. Khat chewing is known to cause
serious a health issue due to Khat consumption is addictive, causing some
psychologic and/or biologic dependence [11].
The World Health
Organization classified khat as an illegal drug, as causing psychological but
not physical dependence and indicated that its abuse may cause a range of
health challenges [12]. The World Health Organization observe has found that
khat use causes dependency, predisposes the individual to myocardial
infarction, ischemic heart disease, psychosis, distress, premature ejaculation,
unprotected sex, manic episodes, oesophageal cancer, low birth weight and
lactation problems, structural and functional brain changes, and criminal
activity [13]. Chronic consumption can lead to impairment of mental health,
substance dependency, early sexual debut unprotected sex mental health issues
and with various social, cognitive and financial challenges [14]. Long term use
or abuse can cause insomnia, anorexia, gastric disorders, depression, liver
damage and cardiac complications. Manic and delusional behavior violence,
suicidal depression, hallucinations, paranoia and Khat induced psychosis have
also been observed among chronic khat chewers [15]. Long term khat use has also
been correlated with several oral and dental disorders such as keratotic white
lesions, mucosal pigmentation, plasma cell stomatitis, tooth loss, teeth
attrition and discoloration, gingival recession, periodontal diseases, and
temporomandibular joint disorders. A high incidence of temporomandibular joint
problems, reduced periodontal pocket depth, and buccal mucosa keratosis have
also been observed. Development of oral white lesions on the buccal mucosa on
the chewing side also occurred among chronic khat chewers [16,17].
Cardiovascular effects of khat chewing in humans involve elevated blood
pressure and elevates in heart rate. Individuals who chewed Khat also high risk
to death following stroke and heart failure [18]. The amphetamine-rich nature
of khat leaves resulted in symptoms such as tachycardia, hyperthermia, and
dryness of the month, tachypnoea, mydriasis, and restlessness. Chronic
ingestion of khat exposes the chewers to thrombocytosis, which may lead to
myocardial infarction, ischemic heart disease, cardiogenic shock, arrhythmia,
manic-like schizophrenia and distress secondary to withdrawal [19]. Other
observed adverse effects include erectile dysfunction (reduced sperm count),
involvement in unsafe, psychotic experiences oesophageal cancer, low birth
weight among pregnant mother chewers, and lactation problem postnatal [20]. The
toxic effects of varying levels of khat leaves have been examined with
resulting of adverse effects on vital organs, including the liver and kidneys,
as documented in elevated plasma levels of alkaline phosphatase, aspartate
aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase and a reduce in direct bilirubin
levels has also been observed. Acute hepatocellular degenerative and
regenerative activities were noted histopathologically. Tissue sections of the
kidneys have shown fatty degeneration in the upper cortical tubules, acute
cellular swelling, hyaline tubules, and acute tubular necrosis [21,22]. Gastro-intestinal
challenges involve constipation, stomatitis, esophagitis and gastritis. A
significant correlation between the habit of khat chewing and the development
of haemorrhoidal disease was observed. Besides damaging health, Khat has
adverse socio-economic consequences effects on many other aspects of life
including the loss of thousands of acres of arable land and billions of hours
of work [23].
Conclusion
Predominantly khat
chewing is a male habit, although the number of women indulging in chewing
habit is on the rise. Individuals frequently practice chewing habit in special
social gatherings, known as khat session, which continues for several hrs a
day. Cathinone and amphetamine induce dopamine release from central
dopaminergic nerve terminals thus elevating the activity of dopaminergic
pathways. The World Health Organization observe has found that khat use causes
dependency, predisposes the individual to myocardial infarction, ischemic heart
disease, psychosis, distress, premature ejaculation, unprotected sex, manic
episodes, oesophageal cancer, low birth weight and lactation problems,
structural and functional brain changes, and criminal activity. Khat leaves has
vasoconstrictor properties that may lead to elevated blood pressure, increases
in heart rate and increased incidence of acute myocardial infarction.
Acknowledgments
The author would be
grateful to anonymous reviewers for the comments that increase the quality of
this manuscript.
Funding
None
Competing interests
The author has no financial
or proprietary interest in any of material discussed in this article.
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