Article Type : Review Article
Authors : Bereda G
Keywords : Cigarette smoking; Health; Impact; Nicotine
Smoking is the most common significant preventable risk factor for diseases, disabilities and death in the world. Nicotine dependence is a chronic, relapsing disorder that typically emerges during adolescence, prior to eighteen yrs of age. All tobacco products contain nicotine, which is quickly absorbed in the lungs, mouth and nose. Nicotine from tobacco smoke is readily absorbed via the pulmonary alveolar circulation and is delivered across the blood-brain barrier within ten to twenty seconds of inhalation. An addictive substance, nicotine displays positive reward-reinforcing properties, as reflected by the compulsive drug-seeking behaviour seen in certain smokers, and the appearance of an abstinence syndrome marked by withdrawal symptoms and craving after cessation of exposure. Tobacco-related deaths and disabilities are on elevates worldwide, because of continued use of tobacco (mainly cigarettes). Tobacco use has reached epidemic proportions in many advancing countries, while steady use continues in industrialized nations. Smoking is both physiologically and psychologically addictive, making it extremely difficult to quit even if the desire to do so is strong.
Cigarette smoking is the most common type
of tobacco use [1]. Smoking is the most common significant preventable risk
factor for diseases, disabilities and death in the world [2]. Smoking is
nowadays accelerating readily throughout the advancing world and is one of the
biggest challenges to recent and future world health [3]. The most common
rationales of cigarette smokers provide for smoking is stress relief and
enjoyment, but the main behind the scenes reason is nicotine dependence.
Nicotine acts in the midbrain, creating impulses to smoke in the face of
stimuli correlated with smoking. Consequent alters in brain chemistry also
generate “nicotine hunger” when a smoker goes without nicotine [4]. Nicotine
dependence is a chronic, relapsing disorder that typically emerges during
adolescence, prior to eighteen yrs of age [5].
Nicotine addiction, like that of other medications, involves
psychological, behavioral, social, and physical dependencies. All tobacco
products contain nicotine, which is quickly absorbed in the lungs, mouth and
nose. Nicotine from tobacco smoke is readily absorbed via the pulmonary
alveolar circulation and is delivered across the blood-brain barrier within ten
to twenty seconds of inhalation. An addictive substance, nicotine displays
positive reward-reinforcing properties, as reflected by the compulsive
drug-seeking behaviour seen in certain smokers, and the appearance of an
abstinence syndrome marked by withdrawal symptoms and craving after cessation
of exposure. Nicotine binds to cholinergic nicotinic receptors in the brain,
autonomic ganglia and neuromuscular junctions, of which the central neuronal
receptors are most relevant to the drug’s behavioural effects [6, 7]. Nicotine
acts on the nicotinic receptors in the central nervous system, which eventually
leads to release of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine,
and acetylcholine. The elevation in neurotransmitters is considered to generate
the rewarding effects of nicotine such as pleasure, elevated performance,
ameliorated memory, and decrement in tension and anxiety [8]. Nicotinic
receptor activation by nicotine facilitates the release of various
neurotransmitters, involving acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin,
beta-endorphin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid. Dopamine acting through the
dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway has been implicated in the behavioural
reinforcing effects of nicotine. Chronic or repeated exposure to nicotine
results in sensitization to its effects on dopamine release; this sensitization
of mesolimbic pathways may be of relevance to the development of
nicotine-craving behaviour. Chronic exposure to nicotine also causes nicotinic
receptor desensitization and compensatory receptor up-regulation (i.e. elevate
in nicotinic receptor density), which may responsible for tolerance to the
psychopharmacological effects of nicotine [9, 10]. Smoking is clearly linked to
a higher risk of nearly all forms of cardiovascular disease, involving
myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke and bleeding into the brain (i.e.,
hemorrhagic stroke), congestive heart failure, and narrowing of the arteries in
the extremities (i.e., peripheral arterial disease) [11]. Smoking contributes
too many of the health challenges leading to hospitalization, especially vascular
disease, respiratory illness and many cancers. Additionally, smoking elevates
the risk correlated with hospitalizations for surgical procedures.
Hospitalization, particularly for a tobacco-related illness, may boost
receptivity to smoking cessation messages by elevating perceived vulnerability,
a so-called 'teachable moment'. Illness also brings smokers to the healthcare
setting, where they have contact with health professionals who can provide a
smoking cessation message or intervention. Additionally, procedures such as
coronary arteriography that provide detail of the patient's cardiac status may
minimize subsequent denial of cardiac risk by the patient [12-14].
Tobacco-related deaths and disabilities are on elevates worldwide, because of
continued use of tobacco (mainly cigarettes). Tobacco use has reached epidemic
proportions in many advancing countries, while steady use continues in
industrialized nations [15]. Exposure to secondhand smoke by nonsmokers
elevates the risk for coronary heart disease and lung cancer. Infants are
particularly affected by secondhand smoke, with exposure elevating their risk
for a variety of health problems such as lower respiratory tract infections and
middle ear effusions. Additionally, women who smoke during pregnancy place the
fetus at risk for preterm delivery, low birth weight, miscarriage, and sudden
infant death syndrome [16]. Tobacco smoking affects multiple organ systems
resulting in numerous so-called tobacco-related diseases. The well-known health
risks in tobacco smoking pertain to diseases of the respiratory tract such as
COPD and cancer, especially lung cancer and cancers of the larynx and tongue
[17]. Damage in the lung, primary target of inhaled smoke, can be explained by
the direct chemical exposure to cigarette smoke, but effects causing chronic
diseases in other organ systems are likely to be the result of indirect
consequences of the exposure [18]. Smoking is both physiologically and
psychologically addictive, making it extremely difficult to quit even if the
desire to do so is strong [19].
Conclusion
Smoking is now accelerating rapidly
throughout the advancing world and is one of the biggest challenges to recent
and future world health. The most common rationales of cigarette smokers give
for smoking is stress relief and enjoyment, but the main behind the scenes
reason is nicotine dependence. Nicotine acts in the midbrain, creating impulses
to smoke in the face of stimuli correlated with smoking. Consequent changes in
brain chemistry also produce “nicotine hunger” when a smoker goes without
nicotine. Tobacco-related deaths and disabilities are on elevates worldwide,
because of continued use of tobacco (mainly cigarettes). Tobacco use has
reached epidemic proportions in many advancing countries, while steady use
continues in industrialized nations.
Acknowledgments
The author would be
grateful to anonymous reviewers for the comments that increase the quality of
this manuscript.
Funding
None
Competing interests
The author has no
financial or proprietary interest in any of material discussed in this article.
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