This study explores the intersection of academic research and commercial innovation in chemistry. By integrating entrepreneurship education into the PhD chemistry curriculum, we aim to foster a new generation of entrepreneurial chemists capable of translating scientific discoveries into real-world solutions. We investigate the impact of Science-Based Entrepreneurship Education (SBEE) on students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy, knowledge, and skills, and explore the potential of SBEE to facilitate university-industry technology transfer. Our findings highlight the importance of balancing theoretical knowledge with practical experience, cultivating a strong entrepreneurial mindset, and fostering a supportive ecosystem to nurture innovation and commercialization. By addressing the unique challenges and opportunities presented by SBEE, we can empower chemists to drive sustainable economic growth and societal impact.

The intersection of chemistry and entrepreneurship offers a promising avenue for innovation and economic growth. By fostering an entrepreneurial mindset among PhD chemistry students, we can empower them to translate scientific discoveries into real-world applications, driving technological advancements and addressing societal challenges. This study builds on our previous research, which explored various aspects of entrepreneurship education, including factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions, the role of critical thinking, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on green entrepreneurship. In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on integrating entrepreneurship education into higher education curricula. This trend is particularly relevant for PhD students, who often possess deep scientific knowledge but may lack the skills and mindset required to commercialize their research. By equipping these students with entrepreneurial skills, we can encourage them to think critically, identify market opportunities, and develop innovative solutions to global problems. Our research has demonstrated the potential of integrating entrepreneurship into chemistry education to enhance students' employability and entrepreneurial aspirations. Through hands-on projects, business plan competitions, and networking opportunities with industry professionals, we aim to cultivate a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship within chemistry departments. Building on this foundation, this study investigates specific strategies and interventions that can enhance the entrepreneurial mindset and skills of PhD chemistry students. By examining the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating entrepreneurship education into the chemistry curriculum, we seek to develop evidence-based recommendations for fostering a more entrepreneurial culture within academia.

The following research questions will guide this study: How can entrepreneurship education be effectively integrated into the PhD chemistry curriculum? What are the key entrepreneurial skills and knowledge that PhD chemistry students need to develop? What are the barriers and facilitators to integrating entrepreneurship education into the PhD chemistry curriculum? How can institutions and organizations support the development of entrepreneurial skills and mindset among PhD chemistry students? By addressing these questions, this study contributes to the ongoing dialogue on entrepreneurship education in higher education and provides practical insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers seeking to promote innovation and economic growth. Integrating entrepreneurship into the PhD chemistry curriculum is especially crucial in the context of Egypt. This literature survey highlights recent approaches and conceptual issues surrounding this integration, drawing on current studies and practices. Recent studies emphasize the need for a structured curriculum that includes entrepreneurship modules tailored for chemistry students, involving both theoretical knowledge and practical applications, such as business planning and understanding market dynamics. For instance, a case study at Cairo University demonstrated the effectiveness of integrating entrepreneurship into the chemistry curriculum for postgraduate students, highlighting the positive impact on their entrepreneurial mindset and skills.

Employing mixed-methods approaches, such as surveys and focus groups, have been effective in assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education on students. These approaches provide insights into their self-efficacy and readiness to engage in entrepreneurial activities critical for their future careers in science and technology. Creating collaborative learning environments where students tackle real-world problems enhances their understanding of chemistry while equipping them with the necessary skills for navigating the complexities of starting and managing a business in the scientific field. Moreover, establishing mentorship programs that connect students with industry professionals significantly enhances their entrepreneurial skills, offering insights into funding, marketing, and commercialization strategies. In the Egyptian context, cultural attitudes towards entrepreneurship are shifting, with a growing recognition of its importance in driving economic growth. However, traditional academic structures often prioritize theoretical knowledge over practical skills, necessitating a cultural shift to foster an entrepreneurial mindset among PhD students in chemistry. Additionally, limited access to resources and funding for startups poses challenges for aspiring entrepreneurs. Addressing these barriers through institutional support and industry partnerships can facilitate the commercialization of research. The Egyptian government's increasing support for entrepreneurship initiatives highlights the need for policies that align educational frameworks with entrepreneurial goals in higher education. There is a critical need for skill development programs focusing on both technical and entrepreneurial skills, preparing students to excel in research and translate their findings into viable business opportunities. In conclusion, integrating entrepreneurship into the PhD chemistry curriculum in Egypt presents both opportunities and challenges. By adopting innovative educational strategies and addressing conceptual issues, educational institutions can cultivate a new generation of chemical innovators equipped to contribute to the economy and society (Tables 1,2).

The integration of entrepreneurship into higher education, particularly within science and technology disciplines, has gained traction as a means to enhance university-industry technology transfer. This literature survey examines the intersection of science-based entrepreneurship education (SBEE) and its implications for university-industry collaboration, particularly within the context of PhD chemistry programs.

University-industry technology transfer

University-industry technology transfer is essential for fostering innovation and economic growth [1]. Traditional perspectives often attribute challenges in this area to insufficient collaboration between academic researchers and industry partners. However, Warren highlight that a supportive regional innovation system is crucial for successful technology transfer, suggesting that multiple factors influence this dynamic [2]. Anderson critique the efficiency of current organizational structures, such as Technology Transfer Offices, proposing a quantitative model to assess transfer efficiency [3]. Additionally, Audretsch emphasize the significance of firm location in facilitating these transfers [4]. Thus, understanding the broader context of university-industry technology transfer is vital for developing effective strategies for improvement.

Role of entrepreneurship education

In response to the need for enhanced collaboration, universities have increasingly embraced the dual role of research and education in fostering an entrepreneurial mindset among students [5,6]. The shift towards valorization—transforming scientific knowledge into commercial and societal value—has encouraged academic researchers to adopt entrepreneurial identities [7,8]. While traditional entrepreneurship education has primarily been housed within business administration programs, recent efforts have extended into faculties of science, engineering, and technology [9]. However, research on the specific effects of SBEE on university-industry technology transfer remains limited [10-12]. This gap highlights the need for further exploration of how SBEE can effectively contribute to technology transfer initiatives.

SBEE as a mechanism for technology transfer

SBEE represents a unique subset of entrepreneurship education that is deeply embedded within scientific and technological contexts. This approach emphasizes the importance of experiential learning and the practical application of entrepreneurial principles within the science domain. The literature indicates that SBEE can promote entrepreneurial attitudes, critical thinking, and market awareness among students, thereby enhancing their capacity to engage in successful technology transfer [13]. The underexplored nature of SBEE about technology transfer necessitates a systematic investigation into its content and effectiveness. By focusing on educational methodologies rather than solely on research outputs, this survey aims to elucidate how SBEE can serve as a conduit for fostering university-industry relationships and enhancing technological innovations.

Research methodologies employed in examining SBEE often involve mixed-methods approaches, including surveys and case studies, which provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of entrepreneurship education on student outcomes. Case studies, such as the Science, Business & Innovation (SBI) program at VU University Amsterdam, offer insights into best practices for integrating entrepreneurship into science curricula and highlight successful strategies for promoting technology transfer through education.

Barriers and facilitators

The literature identifies various barriers to integrating entrepreneurship education within science programs, including institutional resistance, lack of resources, and cultural attitudes towards entrepreneurship. Conversely, facilitators such as mentorship opportunities, collaborative projects, and institutional support can enhance the effectiveness of SBEE in encouraging innovation and commercialization [14-16]. This literature survey underscores the importance of integrating SBEE into PhD chemistry curricula to facilitate university-industry technology transfer. By addressing the gaps in current research and focusing on the specific contributions of SBEE, this study aims to provide actionable insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers dedicated to fostering innovation in the scientific landscape (Tables 3-5).

The distribution of research specializations indicates a strong focus on Biochemistry (37.8%) and Analytical Chemistry (33.3%). This aligns with the need for tailored entrepreneurial education that leverages the specific strengths of these fields to foster innovation and commercialization.

Years in Academic Research: With a significant portion of students (33.3%) having more than five years of experience, it suggests a mature understanding of scientific research. This experience can be harnessed in entrepreneurship education to bridge the gap between technical expertise and entrepreneurial skills.

Motivations for Entrepreneurship: The primary motivation being the advancement of scientific knowledge (45%) underscores the importance of integrating entrepreneurship education that emphasizes not only financial outcomes but also the broader impacts of research on society. This aligns with your research question about developing an entrepreneurial mindset.

Importance of Financial Gain: The mixed responses regarding the importance of financial gain reflect a nuanced view of entrepreneurship among PhD students. This suggests that entrepreneurship education should address varying priorities and potentially redefine success in entrepreneurial ventures beyond just financial metrics.

Institutional Support: The moderate levels of institutional support indicate an area for improvement. This aligns with your research question regarding barriers and facilitators to integrating entrepreneurship, highlighting the need for stronger institutional frameworks to support entrepreneurial initiatives.

Effectiveness of Support: A significant portion feeling that support is not effective (25%) emphasizes the necessity of evaluating and enhancing existing support structures, which is crucial for fostering an entrepreneurial culture in academia.

Preparation for Entrepreneurship: The responses indicate a clear need for improved educational frameworks to prepare students adequately for entrepreneurship. This finding supports your investigation into effective integration strategies for entrepreneurship education.

Role of Technology Transfer Offices: The varied perceptions of the role of Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) highlight the potential for enhancing their effectiveness in supporting commercialization efforts, thus addressing the challenges in university-industry technology transfer.

Importance of Networking: The high importance placed on networking (60% indicating "very" to "extremely important") reinforces the need for structured networking opportunities as part of entrepreneurship education, aligning with your recommendations for fostering collaboration.

Collaboration with Industry Partners: The limited collaboration with industry partners suggests a gap that entrepreneurship education could help bridge by providing students with real-world connections and experiences.

Sources of Information on Entrepreneurship: The reliance on formal education, peer discussions, and university resources highlights the need for universities to enhance their entrepreneurship curricula and provide more accessible resources.

Critical Resources for Academic Entrepreneurship: Funding opportunities being cited as the most critical barrier emphasizes the need for educational programs to include training on securing funding and understanding market dynamics.

Beneficial Training Types: The demand for training in business management and marketing reflects the importance of equipping students with the comprehensive skills necessary for successful entrepreneurship.

Confidence in Navigating Commercialization: The mixed confidence levels indicate a need for mentorship and supportive training to bolster students' confidence in commercializing their research.

Perception of Failure: A positive view of failure (50%) suggests an evolving mindset that embraces risk-taking, which is essential for entrepreneurship.

Perceived Potential for Commercialization: The moderate to high potential for commercialization indicates optimism among students, which aligns with the objective of your study to enhance entrepreneurial skills and mindset.

Barriers and Challenges in Commercialization: The identification of funding and time constraints as major challenges highlights areas where entrepreneurship education can provide targeted strategies to overcome these barriers.

Likelihood to Pursue Entrepreneurship: The balanced view regarding the likelihood of pursuing entrepreneurship suggests that while interest exists, there are challenges that need to be addressed through effective educational interventions.

Relationship between Research and Entrepreneurship: The growing recognition of the interconnectedness of research and entrepreneurship aligns with your overarching goal to integrate these domains into the chemistry curriculum, fostering innovation and real-world applications (Table 6).

The findings from this study underscore the critical importance of integrating entrepreneurial education into the PhD chemistry curriculum. A significant portion of respondents expressed strong motivations to engage in entrepreneurial activities, primarily driven by the desire to advance scientific knowledge. However, challenges such as limited funding, inadequate institutional support, and a lack of training in business and marketing skills were identified as barriers to the effective commercialization of research. The results also indicate a moderate level of confidence among students in navigating the commercialization process, suggesting a need for enhanced educational frameworks. The integration of entrepreneurship into the chemistry curriculum can significantly impact students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentions. By equipping students with essential entrepreneurial skills and knowledge, institutions can foster a culture of innovation that empowers the next generation of chemical innovators.

Curriculum Development: Incorporate dedicated entrepreneurship modules that cover key topics such as market analysis, intellectual property rights, and business planning into the existing PhD chemistry curriculum. Include case studies and practical projects to allow students to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world scenarios.

Skill Development Workshops: Organize workshops focused on business management, marketing strategies, and funding acquisition to provide students with the tools necessary for the successful commercialization of their research. Encourage participation in interdisciplinary workshops that bring together students from different fields to foster collaboration and innovation.

Mentorship Programs: Establish mentorship programs connecting students with experienced entrepreneurs and industry professionals. This will provide guidance and insights into the entrepreneurial landscape. Facilitate networking opportunities through seminars and conferences that focus on entrepreneurship in the sciences.

Institutional Support: Advocate for increased institutional support in the form of funding for entrepreneurial initiatives and resources dedicated to technology transfer offices. Develop partnerships with industry to provide students with access to real-world challenges and potential funding sources.

Evaluation and Feedback: Implement a feedback mechanism to assess the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in enhancing students' self-efficacy and intentions. Regularly update the curriculum based on this feedback to ensure it meets the evolving needs of students and the market.

By addressing the identified challenges and implementing the above recommendations, institutions can effectively cultivate an entrepreneurial mindset among PhD chemistry students, ultimately contributing to innovation and the successful commercialization of research.

For taking part in this work, I would like to thank the following PhD students: Amira Hassan Abdella (coordinator), Eman Omar Mohamed (assistant), Esraa Bakry Abdelazim(assistant), Ahmed Mohamed Abdelaal, Doaa Hassan Mohamed, Hend Hesham Mahmoud, Mahmoud Gamal Metwally, Marwa Elsayed Sayed, Mostafa Farouk Hassan, Nourhan Mahmoud Ibrahim and Rawan Megahed Aboelkhear. Their opinions and thoughts were really helpful to our study. I want to express my gratitude to everyone who participated in this program. Their dedication and diligence over two months were inspiring. Their thoughts and recommendations have greatly benefited the Academic Writing course and will play a significant role in future developments. Their enthusiasm and enthusiastic engagement in the learning process are much appreciated. Because of their involvement, this project has been powerful and fulfilling.

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